According to Russell’s philosophical reasoning regarding the reality of matter, if we closely analyze a pencil, what can our senses immediately tell us about the pencil?

What the pencil seems to signify in relation to us

Explanation: Bertrand Russell

was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, writer, essayist, social critic, political activist, and Nobel laureate. He was deeply interested in the logic of psychology and how events are related and work together.

His philosophical reasoning regarding matter is that we tend to view objects around us a function of what they mean in relation to us, which means the same object can be perceived to be different things to different people. Most of the functionalities of objects are in the individual subconscious and the senses interpret these in relation to what it can do for or mean to us.

the earth’s crust is broken into separate pieces called tectonic plates (fig. 7.14). recall that the crust is the solid, rocky, outer shell of the planet. it is composed of two distinctly different types of material: the less-dense continental crust and the more-dense oceanic crust. both types of crust rest atop solid, upper mantle material. the upper mantle, in turn, floats on a denser layer of lower mantle that is much like thick molten tar.

each tectonic plate is free-floating and can move independently. earthquakes and volcanoes are the direct result of the movement of tectonic plates at fault lines. the term fault is used to describe the boundary between tectonic plates. most of the earthquakes and volcanoes around the pacific ocean basin—a pattern known as the “ring of fire”—are due to the movement of tectonic plates in this region. other observable results of short-term plate movement include the gradual widening of the great rift lakes in eastern africa and the rising of the himalayan mountain range. the motion of plates can be described in four general patterns:

collision: when two continental plates are shoved together

subduction: when one plate plunges beneath another (fig. 7.15)

spreading: when two plates are pushed apart (fig. 7.15)

transform faulting: when two plates slide past each other (fig. 7.15)

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