What navigation equipment did europeans use in the 1400s

Among the oldest and most basic tools was the lead line, used since antiquity to measure depth. This measurement could tell sailors how far they were from land. Another low-tech device, the ka-mal, was developed in Asia and the Middle East. It used a piece of wood marked for the position of Polaris at the latitude of various ports. By 1400, more sophisticated versions used a length of knotted string so the navigator could, by placing the string in his mouth, sight the horizon and the height of Polaris to judge latitude.

Timepieces also aided in navigation. In 1400, mariners still used hourglasses. These, in connection with careful observation of shorelines and accurate logbooks, helped navigators estimate location and predict arrival times.

The video, "Before Cook's Voyage", shows early navigation tools such as compass, astrolabe, octant and back staff, telescopes and the need to solve the longitude problem (time). ... Celestial navigation requires the sailor to use an instrument, like a sextant, to find the angle between a star/planet and the horizon.

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question - in the 1900s there were two competing views about the environment that often pitted industrialist and conservationist against one another. how were these two competing views demonstrated by the environmental policies of president roosevelt and president taft?

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