Prior to the congressional and presidential actions, careful studies by government economists indicated that the direct multiplier effect of a rise in government expenditures on equilibrium real gdp is equal to 6. in the 12 months since the increase in government spending, however, it has become clear that the actual ultimate effect on real gdp will be less than half of that amount. this could have happened because of all the following except a. direct expenditure offset. b. a supply-side effect. c. an indirect crowding out. d. a short-run increase in the price level.