How does the Constitution change
by other than formal amendment

the answer is below

Explanation:

This vital process of constitutional change by means other than formal amendment has taken place—and continues  to occur—in five basic ways: through (1) the passage of basic legislation by Congress; (2) actions taken by the President; (3) key decisions of the Supreme Court; (4) the activities of  political parties;

answer:

it caused mass african migration, african populations to grow, african empires to topple, and racism against slaves to emerge.

the answers are a b and d