Ottoman Empire
Seljuk Empire
Ghurid Sultanate
Explanation:
The Seljuk Empire
The Seljuk Empire was founded by Turkic mercenaries from Central Asia who first conquered Khorasan, then Persia, and finally Iraq. Their rise to power began in 1040 C.E. when they defeated the dominant power in the eastern Islamic world (Afghanistan, eastern Iran), the Ghaznavids, at the Battle of Dandanaqan; from 1055 C.E., the Caliph in Baghdad was a figurehead of the Seljuk sultan. Indeed, the Seljuks were staunch Sunnis who answered the request of the Abbasid Caliph to free them from the control of a previous Persian Shia dynasty (Buyids).
The Seljuks also defeated the Shia Fatimids of Egypt in the Levant, capturing Jerusalem in 1073; their alleged brutality and harassment of pilgrims was a factor in setting off the Crusades. Under the Sultan Alp Arslan, they were able to crush the Byzantines in a way that the Arabs were not, seizing most of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. Thus, the Seljuks were able to establish the largest empire in the Middle East since the early Abbasids, stretching from the present Chinese border to the gates of Constantinople.
The legacy of the Seljuks is significant. Under their rule, large parts of the Middle East began to be Turkified or settled by Turks, especially Anatolia (Turkey) and Azerbaijan. Sunni Islam became increasingly dominant throughout the Middle East as Shia power declined. The Seljuks were patrons of the Persian language and courtly culture—despite being Turks—and the decline of the prestige of Arab culture in the Islamic world continued. The Seljuks’ center of power was Persia and they revived many traditions of Persian statecraft. Their enthusiasm for conquest also led to increased confrontation with Christian Europe.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire is impressive for its longevity and breadth. Founded by Turks in Anatolia in 1299 C.E., it expanded rapidly, conquering Constantinople (Istanbul) and making it its capital in 1453, lasting all the way till 1923. In addition to being sultan, the Ottoman ruler was also widely recognized as a Caliph throughout the Sunni Islamic world after 1517.
The Ottomans were the first Islamic state to conquer and rule the Balkans, defeating the Serbs, Bulgars, Byzantines, and Hungarians. These borderlands represented the first stage of Ottoman expansion. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans conquered various Turkish principalities in Anatolia, most Kurds, and even Iraq, after defeating the Safavids of Persia at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. However, the major Ottoman triumph came in 1516-1517, when the empire defeated the Mamluks of Egypt. This lead to not only wealthy Egypt and Syria coming under Ottoman control, but also the Hejaz, which included the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Ottoman power continued to expand to include overlordship over Crimea and North Africa. Except for Iran, the Ottomans dominated the Middle East for nearly four hundred years. The Ottoman Empire famously (and unsuccessfully) besieged Vienna in 1529 and 1683, almost breaking into central Europe.
