Ottoman, russian, and east asian political leaders, long secure in their traditions, suddenly took up reform efforts in the nineteenth century to shore up the strength and the viability of their societies. how did those reforms challenge traditional precepts, and how effective were they?

Read the following quotation from catholic bishop jacques-bénigne bossuet at the court of louis xiv. rulers then act as the ministers of god and as his lieutenants on earth. it is through them that god exercises his empire. . consequently, as we have seen, the royal throne is not the throne of a man, but the throne of god himself. what best summarizes the bishop’s point of view? b). kings on earth rule with god’s authority.