1. advertising is important for most companies, es- pecially companies such as p& g that sells mostly to end customers. but, most people already know about p& g products such as charmin bathroom tissue and moist towelettes, crest toothpaste, and so on. does p& g really need to constantly put money into advertising when its products already have a strong hold in the global marketplace?
2. p& g cut its marketing and advertising agency roster by 50 percent over the past three years from around 6,000 to 3,000 companies in a bid to increase its marketing productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness. at a $9 billion worldwide spend on advertising, should p& g have more or fewer marketing and advertising agencies doing its advertising?
3. by consolidating and cutting 100 brands from its consumer portfolio of brands, does p& g run the risk of ultimately losing out on global market opportunities?

Reliability and validity reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be made with any type of data collection. reliability refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result. in the context of psychological research, this would mean that any instruments or tools used to collect data do so in consistent, reproducible ways. unfortunately, being consistent in measurement does not necessarily mean that you have measured something correctly. to illustrate this concept, consider a kitchen scale that would be used to measure the weight of cereal that you eat in the morning. if the scale is not properly calibrated, it may consistently under- or overestimate the amount of cereal that’s being measured. while the scale is highly reliable in producing consistent results (e.g., the same amount of cereal poured onto the scale produces the same reading each time), those results are incorrect. this is where validity comes into play. validity refers to the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure. while any valid measure is by necessity reliable, the reverse is not necessarily true. researchers strive to use instruments that are both highly reliable and valid.