In 1995, Rhonda Daley and Robert Martin, a husband and wife research team at the Institute for Cancer and the Environment, wondered if women who wore underwire bras all day, every day would have a higher risk of developing breast cancer than those who did not. The researchers theorized that wearing underwire bras would inhibit lymphatic drainage, trapping toxins produced by the wire in the breast tissue, causing cancer. To test their idea they surveyed the bra-wearing behaviors of 4,700 US women in 5 major cities (2,056 women in the cancer group and 2,644 women for the standard group). Individuals who used soft cup bras part of the time or exclusively were not included in the study. Women in the control group were asked how often they wore their underwire bras; women who had had breast cancer were asked about their bra-wearing habits prior to their diagnosis of cancer. The women were then classified into one of four groups (women who wore underwire bras 24 hours a day, women who wore underwire bras more than 12 hour per day but not to bed, women who wore their underwire bras fewer than 12 hours per day or women who wore bras rarely or never). All participants signed informed consent forms but were not told the true nature of the study. In order not to bias the findings, participants were told that the research was conducted to determine bra-wearing habits of the general population. The protocol and consent form were reviewed and approved by the participating institutional review boards. Daley and Martin found that the odds of getting breast cancer dramatically increased with underwire bra- wearing for more than 12 hours per day. Women who wore their bras 24 hours per day had a 3 out of 4 chance of developing breast cancer; women who wore bras more than 12 hour per day but not to bed had a 1 out of 7 risk; women who wore their bras fewer than 12 hours per day had a 1 out of 152 risk; while women who wore bras rarely or never had a 1 out of 168 chance of getting breast cancer. The overall difference between 24 hour bra-wearing and not wearing bras was a 125-fold difference (p< 0.001). The researchers recognized that while their study did not control for known risk factors for breast cancer such as the BRCA1 gene and environmental risk factors that affect endogenous hormone levels, they felt their results were compelling and warranted further research. The authors also argued that many of the known risk factors can be related to bra-wearing behavior and/or the lymphatic system. "For example, breastfeeding and pregnancy cause full development of the mammary lymphatics. Also, women of higher economic status have higher breast cancer rates, and one would expect that they would wear underwire bras more hours per day. Women who exercise have lower risk," and are more likely to wear soft cup bras when exercising, thus improving lymphatic circulation and reducing toxic exposure (Daley and Martin 468). Read the research study 3 above and determine the following for each study:. 1. Is the research described scientifically valid?
a. Identify the goal/question of the study. Is the hypothesis falsifiable?
b. Identify any alternative hypotheses being studied.
c. Identify the variables (independent, dependent, control)
d. Identify any limitations or flaws in the research design. (For example, is the study repeatable and objective?)
2. Is the described research ethical? Using the Georgetown Mantra of Bioethics (explained above), determine whether the study adheres to the principles of:.
a. Beneficence
b. Non-maleficence
c. Autonomy
d. Justice
3. How could you improve the described study and/or what further research is needed?
4. Do you think the described research really happened?