The distribution of na+ ions across a typical biological membrane is 10 mmol/dm3 inside the cell and 140 mmol/dm3 outside the cell. at equilibrium, the concentrations are equal. what is the gibbs energy difference across the membrane at 37 deg c? assume activities are equal to concentrations. answer in kj/mol. note the difference should be calculated assuming the initial and final states are inside and outside of the cell, respectively.

The Gibbs free energy of the system refers to a state function as it is illustrated in terms of thermodynamic characteristics, which are state functions. ΔG = -RT ln(K)

K is just the concentration of keeping it at one end.

K = 10 mmol / 140 mmol

R is a constant = 8.31447 J/molK

T = 273 + 37 = 310 K

ΔG = -310 × 8.31447 × ln (10/140)

= 6802 J.

c is the answer : )               your welcome

step 1: initiation

initiation is the beginning of transcription. it occurs when the enzyme rna polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. this signals the dna to unwind so the enzyme can ‘‘read’’ the bases in one of the dna strands. the enzyme is now ready to make a strand of mrna with a complementary sequence of bases.

step 2: elongation

elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mrna strand. rna polymerase reads the unwound dna strand and builds the mrna molecule, using complementary base pairs. there is a brief time during this process when the newly formed rna is bound to the unwound dna. during this process, an adenine (a) in the dna binds to an uracil (u) in the rna.

step 3: termination

termination is the ending of transcription, and occurs when rna polymerase crosses a stop (termination) sequence in the gene. the mrna strand is complete, and it detaches from dna.