The thylakoid membrane contains a protein called atp synthase. as hydrogen ions pass through the protein, adp and a phosphate group are combined to form atp. what is the direct energy source, if any, for the movement of hydrogen ions and the formation of atp?

The answer is; electromotive force

As the Krebs cycle/ Citric cycle occurs in the mitochondria matrix, hydrogen protons are produced and get accumulated in the inter-membrane space from the matrix of the organelle. It is this electromotive force that is harnessed by the ATP synthase to produce ATP.

it will increase due to the time span

hydroxyl -oh

alcohols, always polar, can form hydrogen bonds with h2o molecules

carboxyl -cooh  

cargoxylic acids, has acidic properties which is a source of hydrogen ions, found in cells in ionized for with a charge of oh-1

carbonyl > co

ketone if within skeleton, aldehyde if group is at the end of skeleton, k & a may be structural isomers, it determines 2 sugars (ketose & aldose)

amino -nh2

amines, acts as a base, it can pick up h+ ions from surrounding solution, ionized with charge of 1+

methyl ch2

addition to rna/dna affects and gene expression

phosphate -opo3 ²⁻

organic phosphates, contributes to negative charge to, molecule that it is a part of, and potential to react with h20

sulfhydryl -sh

thiols, cross-linking stabilize the protein, and it is structure